TODAY IN HISTORY - FEBRUARY 8, 1952: QUEEN ELIZABETH II PROCLAIMED QUEEN OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN & IRELAND, THE COMMONWEALTH: A MUSICAL HISTORY FROM PRINCESS TO QUEEN

Elizabeth II in her Coronation Robes, 1953

It was on this 8th day in February in the year 1952 that former Princess-turned-Queen Elizabeth II was proclaimed Queen – not only of the United Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern Ireland – but also of the Commonwealth Nations, including my very own: Canada - the True North, Strong and Free.

As the author of this blog and as both a proud Canadian and member of the Commonwealth, I dedicate this post to our Queen; Unraveling Musical Myths will today take a very brief – and very musical - retrospective journey into Elizabeth’s reign: both as Crown Princess and as Queen, in recognition of her many contributions to the musical arts.

Our Royal Head of State – currently Canada’s longest reigning Monarch (at 65 years on the throne) - boats an Honorary Bachelor of Music degree from the University of London, and has, for her 6+ decades of rule, proved to be quite the champion of the musical arts – frequently patronizing the both the theater and concert hall and supporting charities for the benefit of up-and-coming and established musicians through her participation in various fundraising campaigns.

In the early 20th century, as a young princess under her father (then-reigning King George VI), Elizabeth would inspire English composer and "Master of the King's Music" Edward Elgar to compose his 'Nursery Suite' in honor of the little royal and her recently born infant sister, Princess Margaret in September 1930. The seven-movement piece (including a coda) would be doubly notable as one of the famous musician’s last compositions:




Later, as a young Lady Princess, accompanied by her newfound prince, husband Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, her royal parents (King George VI and his wife Elizabeth), and younger sister Margaret would together arrive at The Royal Festival Hall to mark the opening of the prestigious theater in 1951. Elizabeth would return to the theater some 56 years later – as Queen – to re-open the Concert Hall after it was shuttered in 2005 for two years to placate a refurbishing effort.

The coveted Queen's Medal for Music

2005 would also mark the year in which the "Queen’s Medal for Music" was officially inaugurated. Nominee vetting and selection for the Medal is currently overseen by a committee serving under the "Master of the Queen’s Music." The first recipient of the Queen’s medal was famed Australian (a member of the Commonwealth) conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, and was presented to the musician by the Queen herself at Buckingham Palace on November 22nd, 2005.

Elizabeth would prove a most progressive Monarch in 2014, when British composer Judith Weir was approved as current Master of the Queen’s Music – the first female in English history to hold the highly coveted position (Weir was preceded by English composer and conductor Sir Peter Maxwell Davies). “Dame Weir" - who had earned the honorific in 2005 when she was made an esteemed recipient of the Order of the British Empire (as “CBE”), will serve in this role for a period of 10 years – the limited duration another progressive “Elizabethan” trademark: prior to Elizabeth’s reign as Queen, all of the Monarch's chosen recipients would hold the title for life. Under Elizabeth’s new 'decade regime,' the United Kingdom - and indeed the world - will inevitably become introduced to a variety of English composers, and English Music.

The above examples of Elizabeth’s influence are only but a few of the Monarchs' enduring contributions to the realm of Western Classical Music.

Royal Standard (Flag) of Canada

By forcing outdated traditions (such as male exclusive, lifetime posts as Master of Queen’s Music) into the past to better reflect modern social conventions, our Queen single-handedly embraces the progressive spirit of the present age from what is perhaps one of the world’s most visible and influential platforms. Revisions to the status quo such as these are of undoubted importance – especially where music (specifically classical music) is concerned – in which female leadership remains at an emerging state in a still male-dominated arena. It is by innovations such as these, and by being a frequent presence on the classical and operatic frontlines that Queen Elizabeth II serves as a great boon - not only to the talented classical musicians of Britain, but to the musical genre itself.

It is my honor and privilege to be a citizen of this Realm, and of Canada. Our incredibly rich histories are One, our music among Lady Times’ most esteemed, our Freedoms unsurpassed the world over.




Learn more about Sir Edward Elgar's tenure as "Master of King's/Queen's Music" and the role of the Monarchy in Canada here on Unraveling Musical Myths:

• PATRON PROFILE: QUEEN VICTORIA - ROYAL PATRON, FAN & MUSICIAN

Discover more (external links):

• Read about how Princess Elizabeth first learned she would be called "Queen" - a fascinating story at BBC  
• Newspaper article February 8, 1952 at Winnipeg Free Press Archive

-Rose.

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REGINA MORTUA EST, VIVAT REX CAROLUS! KING CHARLES III's LOVE AFFAIR WITH PARRY

In honor of King Charles III's proclamation as Monarch of the United Kingdom and of the Commonwealth, I dedicate below to his countrymen and women and to the citizens of the Territories a piece of special historical significance - not only to the British Crown but to King Charles himself - the setting of the choral introit "I was Glad" set by Sir Hubert Hastings Parry. 

The new sovereign has long been vocal of his deep admiration for the choral piece and for its composer - whom he often refers to as his favorite, and as somewhat of an 'unsung hero' of sorts in the realm of British classical music. His Majesty first heard Parry's anthem performed at the tender age of four whilst the then-Prince bore witness to the coronation of his late mother, the former Queen and Head of State, Elizabeth II in 1953. 

Parry's musical setting of Psalm 122 (verses 1–3, 6 and 7)^[1] has long been embedded in history of the House of Windsor (fr. Saxe-Coburg and Gotha): Parry originally wrote his version of the anthem for the coronation of Charles' great-great-grandfather, Edward VII in 1902, and it has been used in every coronation since, even making an appearance at the wedding of Prince William and Catherine 'Kate' Middleton at Westminster Abbey in 2011. 

Speaking of the occasion in the documentary The Prince and the Composer: A Film about Hubert Parry by HRH The Prince of Wales (presented by Charles himself) the royal remarked:

 "If you're coming into the abbey and you have to walk up the aisle, and there are an awful lot of people peering at you, some pieces of music literally do waft you up the aisle and it's so marvellous that you're sort of carried along on this wave of music. And that's what I think is so brilliant about this piece, giving you all those tingles up the spine and tears in the eyes...It has an extraordinary capacity to lift the spirits, this particular piece of music. It's timeless, really, isn't it?" 

Because of its association with the coronations of British monarchs, the "vivat(s)" section of the score (Latin for "Long live..." (the King/Queen)) was/is forbidden to be sung by the Queen's/King's scholars of Westminster School if the anthem is not performed during a coronation. Instead, the choir is simply instructed to bypass this section (the redacted version of Parry's anthem was famously heard at the aforementioned nuptials of Prince William and Catherine Middleton). 

In 1902, Parry wrote vivats for both King Edward and Queen Alexandria: "Vivat Regina Alexandra, vivat Regina...vivat Rex Eduardus.." ("Long live King Edward...Long live Queen Alexandra.") 

For Elizabeth II's coronation, there was only one vivat, in custom with British tradition, in which the husband of a Queen may not be styled as King as he has not inherited the throne (while the wife of a King, however, may be styled Queen Consort). It is this truncated version that a young Charles heard during the coronation of his "darling mama" from his seat in the gallery alongside the Queen Mum and his Auntie (Princess Margaret). Cries of "Vivat Regina! Vivat Regina Elizabetha!" (Long live the Queen! Long Live Queen Elizabeth!) would have echoed throughout Westminster Abbey and into the future King's ears.

Above: Vivat for Queen Elizabeth II, performed during Her Majesty's coronation in 1953 (begins at 3:08)

This custom means that King Charles' Queen Consort, Camilla, could be included in a new vivat, in addition to the King's (which will likely be sung as "Vivat Rex Carolus"). 

As Camilla is already the female equivalent of the Roman Camillus, she may be referred to as Regina Camilla, however this - and her inclusion in the revised anthem - remains to be seen, should His Majesty opt to carry on in the tradition of his royal predecessors by selecting the anthem of his favorite composer for his own coronation.

Below: Vivat for Queen Elizabeth II, with score, performed during Her Majesty's coronation in 1953 (Vivat begins at 3:40)

Footnotes:  

^[1]from the psalter found in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer.

 -Rose.

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IN MEMORIAM: QUEEN ELIZABETH II (APRIL 21, 1926 - SEPTEMBER 8, 2022)

 

Above: a touching tribute to Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II by Sky News 

As millions of Britons, citizens of the Commonwealth, and others around the globe mourn the loss of Elizabeth II, I have come to reflect upon my former Head of State with a sense of bittersweet splendour - pained that Her Majesty is no longer with us, yet, altogether marveled by the memories of her glorious reign, stamina, and poise. 

For as long as I have lived, Queen Elizabeth II has been somewhat omnipresent in my life. I fancied myself quite the numismatist and philatelist in my most tender years - I am a citizen born into the commonwealth twice over: as a Canadian by birth, and as the daughter of an immigrant from the then-commonwealth state of Hong Kong. 

It was during these formative years that my young mind became fascinated by the striking portraits of our Head of State, ever evolving throughout those very impressionable phases of my own life: from youth, to teenagehood, to womanhood. I saw her increasingly aging visage everywhere throughout the years as my past times seamlessly moulded themselves into a deep passion for history - both Canadian, and British. 

It was the profile, and the face of Elizabeth, embossed on the faces of coins and printed on the surfaces of stamps from all over the world, that piqued my curiosity. I wanted to know more about this woman who seemed to dominate swathes of nations of varying tongues: who she was, and what she meant to my country and to our British cousins. That curiosity led me down the path of studying Canadian and European history, and later - and perhaps most naturally - to the music that helped pave the path toward our shared freedoms, as our ancestors fought in battle to create, in my humble opinion, one of - if not the - greatest nation in the world. As I became more embedded in my studies, I both marveled over and embraced the legacies of the composers who performed in battle long before Elizabeth's conception. I learned of the propagandists and musically inclined courtiers who so crucially and cleverly manipulated, supported, and volleyed their way through the upper echelons of the British state. In many ways, it was an early lesson in psychology and an invaluable teaching of the cunning use (and misuse) of music for purposes of political persuasion and domination.

Though Great Britain's distant past may be marred by undeniable bloodshed, where kings were made kings on the battlefield, and men became men through daring and chivalric conquests, the reign and life of Elizabeth was different. Having both served in, and survived the Second World War and having acceded to the throne whilst arguably still a child herself - at the tender age of 25 - her role was that of a peaceful monarch: a consistently present and poised ruler who never appeared to take for granted the rich (albeit often gritty) historical past which would end up making her unprecedented 70-year long reign possible. 

Her Majesty shunned the methods of her royal predecessors, opting instead to shy away from public conflict by holding close to her breast matters of both personal and political affairs. She put forward a mask of neutrality in an ever changing, not always friendly world. 

Music and musicians of (and associated with) the court became less thought of as mere political pawns but rather allowed to triumph in their own right: during her reign, the so-called 'Land without Music' - England's status as a musical mecca having waned in popularity since the triumphant days of the English Renaissance - once more became resplendent as the likes of Ralph Vaughan Williams, Arnold Bax, William Walton, and Edward Elgar introduced to a new generation a majestic, and regal shift from the ever embellished icons of English composers past (men like Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Orlando Gibbons, Henry Purcell, and German-turned-naturalised citizen, George Frederic Handel). 

Full of fanfare, stateliness, pomp and circumstance, swathes of musicians (and even non-musicians) the world over would soon recognize the sound of British royalty in the new Elizabethan age, and envision in their minds images of the resplendent Queen in her chariot, as regal and dignified as the compositions which flourished throughout her reign.

Above: Vaughan Williams' grand ceremonial arrangement of the sixteenth-century hymn "The Old Hundredth", performed at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, 2 June 1953 Westminster Abbey, London (preceded by fanfare)

To the very end, Her Majesty remained poised even throughout the dishonours inflicted upon her by those who attempted to corrupt a legacy of leadership - one in which our beloved Sovereign had managed to rule for some seven decades with a refined reticence. It was this sense of stoic disposition which had so notably garnered the admiration and awe of all those who met her, from world leaders to subjects alike. 

There is something to be said for this level of personal conviction. Throughout the numerous traumas Elizabeth faced, particularly over the course of the past several years, her stamina and resolve proved to all of those who supported her that silence speaks volumes, that privacy is a virtue, and that dignity over historical savagery and present day insolence will always triumph in the end. 

Her Majesty vowed to work until the end of her days, and she has honored her oath. Having seldom wavered from her steely-faced, yet gentle resolve, she will be remembered as a ruler of sound mind, a connoisseur of political adroitness, and as a woman of extraordinary courage, strength, and heart. 

With condolences to all those who mourn the loss of Her Majesty, including the working members of the Royal family. 

God Save the Queen. 

Long Live King Charles III.

See more: St Paul's Service of Thanksgiving to Honour the Queen

-Rose.

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REMEMBERING HER MAJESTY, QUEEN ELIZABETH II: THANK YOU FOR YOUR SERVICE / MERCI POUR VOTRE SERVICE

Below: A dedication from Unraveling Musical Myths to the reader of a performance of Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary, set by English composer Henry Purcell for the funeral of his then-Sovereign, Queen Mary II, who succumbed to smallpox in late December of 1694.

It was through the death of Her Majesty that Westminster-born Purcell quite suddenly found himself in charge of music for a royal funeral that had never originally been planned - the late Queen having stipulated that there be no such ceremony of state following her demise. Purcell had been serving as organist at Westminster Abbey at the time of Queen Mary's death.

It was due to the will and wish of the public, who so loved their Monarch, (a feeling shared by modern-day loyalists to our own late Sovereign lady, Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II), that a state funeral was scheduled for 5 March, 1695, some three months following Mary's demise.

For the occasion, Purcell composed his Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary and the funeral sentence, Thou knowest, Lord, the secrets of our hearts, which were performed during the occasion alongside works by Thomas Morley and other English composers. 

Purcell had twice previously set music to Thou knowest (from the The Book of Common Prayer, 1549): first in 1672 to complete sentences by fellow English composer Henry Cooke for the latters' funeral, and later, with revisions occurring around 1680). These earlier versions were polyphonic, as was custom at the time. The composers' third version of Thou knowest, as well as his March and Canzona were performed during the funeral service of Queen Mary II. Today, the March, Canzona and the funeral sentence (along with two other sentences set by Purcell, Man that is born of a woman, and In the midst of life we are in death) are often performed together as the composer's Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary (Z. 860).

Recent scholarship suggests that this latest setting may have been an homage by Purcell not only to his late Sovereign, but possibly to the composer Thomas Morley, whose own setting of this particular sentence would later be discovered. It is speculated by some musicologists that Purcell donned an older style to mimic Morley's music, and that this setting was possibly used to complete sentences by the latter composer. The words for this particular version are set mostly in homophony.

With the question of attribution aside, it would be this third version of Thou knowest, which would be performed at subsequent royal funerals, including that of the Queen Mum, and that of her daughter, our late Majesty (and the Queen Mum's namesake), Elizabeth II, which could be heard echoing resoundingly through the walls of the royal church as the former Monarch and Head of State's coffin entered Westminster Abbey on this most sombre day of 19 September 2022. 

Purcell's setting of Thou Knowest would later go on to be performed at the composers' own funeral following his death (believed to be caused by tuberculosis) in November 1695, just a mere eight months since the piece was first performed. He was only 35 at the time of his passing.

Jump to 1:27:53 to hear Purcell's funeral sentence Thou knowest, Lord, the secrets of our hearts (Jean Tubéry conducts La Fenice):

- Rose.

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JOSEPH LANNER UND DER WALZER: THE KEY THAT UNLOCKED PENT-UP SEXUALITY

Two dancing figures, thought to be Queen Elizabeth I of Tudor fame, and the Queen's favorite Sir
Robert Dudley scandalized (and excited) her invited guests to an impromptu semi-erotic dance
derived from the lowly peasants of Italy. In many countries in Europe, the touching of one's
dance partner was strictly verboten amongst "decent" society. La Volta. however, was a
documented favorite of the Queen.

Before we delve deep into the contributions of Herren Lanner and Strauß II, we must first begin in the centuries that immediately preceded the dance/music craze, by exploring the basis from which Der Walzer (the Waltz) flourished.

We begin with a festive scene in London England, and with it's present ruler, Queen Elizabeth I. In the video below, we see a modern depiction of a dance known as La Volta (from the 1998 British biopic Elizabeth), as performed by Queen Elizabeth I and her alleged paramour, Robert Dudley. Whilst la Volta was seen by many as a dance most untoward a fine lady due to it's semi-intimate nature, the true scandal here is that Dudley was suspected of throwing his wife, Amy Robsart down a flight of stairs to get closer to Elizabeth.

The fall would kill Robsart, breaking her neck at some point during the tumble. To this day, many believe Dudley is considered the main suspect in the alleged murder, which was immortalized in paper by the coroner who cited the manner of death as a "broken neck," and the cause as “Death under mysterious circumstances.”

There is no denying it: he certainly had all the duds: 
 strikingly handsome, the son of a English General,
highly decorated - and certainly most important of
all, Sir Robert Dudley (allegedly) had stolen the
Queen of England's heart.

Whilst Dudley was merely a minor nobleman, (son of the late English General John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland) at the time he met Elizabeth, it seemed the notorious "virgin" Queen was smitten with the handsome noble, even creating for him a position at Court as Master of the Horse in order to be closer to her much besotten forbidden fruit without arousing any suspicion of a Royal cavorting with a mere noble: a huge no-no according to English customs of the era. Elizabeth would later bestow upon his head the Knight of the Garter a mere two years into her tenure on the English throne - a systematic pattern of raising the status of the nobleman which would continue well through the 16th century: in 1562, just two short years after Robsart's untimely death, Sir Dudley would permeate internal governing affairs, becoming Privy Councillor, in 1587, appointed Lord Steward of the Royal Household, and a mere four years after Robsart's alleged murder, allegedly orchestrated by Dudley himself, Elizabeth would promote her Master of Horse to the 1st Earl of Leicester - no meager a gift by any means - being the first to own an Earldom significantly raises the status of it's proprietor.

Prior to Robsart’s death, the obviousness of Elizabeth’s favoritism to the handsome Earl (who was said to have free reign over the Queen's sacred and private chambers - sometimes entering at nightfall and not re-emerging until dawn!) allowed much room for rumor to spread: “She will marry him!,”  became the hot gossip both within and outside of Royal circles - of course, only, they concluded, "...in the case his wife should die.” Dudley, who desperately wanted Elizabeth and a royal seat, had overheard these rumors. It was not long after he became aware of them that Amy Robsart 's corpse was found mangled at the foot of a tall set of stairs. Could Dudley have been so power-hungry and lustful as to murder his wife? Or could it be that someone, who had overheard the rumor that the frustratingly "celibate" Queen might wed the Earl, expedited the potential “marriage” (which would have never happened anyway, Dudley being too "low-born") in order to create an heir to the English throne? Perhaps it was suicide?

No one really knows for sure – what is known is that Elizabeth openly flaunted her lust for the newly minted Earl of Leicester, often engaging him in dance, as we can see by the contemporary illustration at the beginning of this post (above left) of the duo performing Elizabeth’s favorite dance, "la Volta" (Italian for ‘the turn(ing)”: (It should be noted that after a brief 'banning' from court (merely for show), Dudley would return to Elizabeth's palace, it was at this time, after Robsart's alleged murder, that Dudley was knighted 1st Earl of Leicester - a mere four years after his spouse's untimely death!)



As one can clearly see, this 16-17th century dance involved some moments of intimacy formerly considered inappropriate and lewd during it’s time. The style originated in Italy and would soon find fame in the royal Courts of France and Germany. It was considered a tad risqué for the man to place his arms about the waist of the woman, lifting her in to the air, as close body contact was, for the most part, strictly verboten during this era. Once Elizabeth chose the dance for her ball with a lowly Dudley as her partner – a noble touching a Royal – it became less than dignified – just shy off a full-blown scandal.

Such rules of limited engagement weren't country-specific: here is a clip from the excellent film The Countess, also depicted in the 17th century, which showcases the alleged serial murderess/bloodthirsty Hungarian noble and warlord Erzebet Báthory engaged in a similar dance sometime during the 16th and 17th century:

Herr Joseph Lanner, the TRUE master of the
Waltz

But, things weren’t always so chaste – at least they soon wouldn’t be. Enter one Joseph Lanner, composer of Austria, and his likeminded musical ‘rival’ Johann Strauß II (aka 'the younger) of Germany, who composed music especially for dance, and in Lanner’s case, transformed the simple peasant’s dance, known as the waltz, into an incredibly intimate dance dignified enough for the higher middle and upper classes. Der Walzer – German for “the turn(ing)" is often likened as a more intense version of La Volta - originating from the impoverished streets of Italy - that seemingly broke all the rules of decorum. That it was founded and celebrated in Austria and Germany is no small surprise: if the reader will recall, it was in Germany that the Royal Courts celebrated the 16th century Italian dance la Volta, popularizing it during the 17th century. As you can see from the videos of the popular dances of the era above, rules - however minor the may be - were often broken in terms of just how intimate or close the dancing couples could be from one another without getting caught.

By the 18th century, Lanner had seen enough ‘law-breaking’ to become both frustrated and profiteering. He would single-handedly exploit the frustrations of the dancers and the demeaning class distinctions which decided who could or couldn’t perform the couples dance, and transformed it into the waltz. He would now compose, specifically for the newfound 18th century dance (Der Walzer) – which was incredibly intimate – allowing couples to hold each other so close as to be breast to breast, and with a much relieved sigh of long awaited delirium at finally being able to hold their lover and display a little PDA in public, the lusty couples would twirl: maniacally, dizzily – about the ballroom floor.

Der Walzer had it’s critics, to be sure – but those who wanted to dance, danced - with nary a second thought as to outdated religious and discriminatory disciplines that separated the “peasants” or lowborn nobles from the entertainments of the Royals.

Listen: Lanner's Die Schönbrunner Walzer,  so named and dedicated by the composer for the beautiful Schönbrunner Palace, performed  here by the Wiener Philharmoniker under maestro Lorin Maazel for the 1994 annual Neujahrskonzert (New Year's concert) at Vienna, was all the rage in Europe prior to Strauß' The Blue Danube penned in the late 19th century. It was also one of the last works written by Lanner, and was so beloved by the masses, it is said the maestro was forced into performing it a whopping 21 more times before he could step down from the podium in 1842. Sometime later, avant-garde composer Igor Stravinsky would return to the six-decades old waltz, and borrow parts of the score for his ballet Petrushka


So popular (and I daresay, so long awaited and relieving) a dance was the waltz, that by 1760, Teresa Cornelys, a popular Venetian (imagine!) opera singer created the first ever public dance hall in Europe. A new establishment born unto the world, thanks to Lanner’s bravery, his music, and the music of his sometime running mate Joseph Strauß II - who quickly caught onto the sexy trend, and whose fame would outshine Lanner’s due to his ability to travel and perform across Europe.

Cornelys’ public dance hall was dubbed the “Carlisle house.” Although it was an exclusive club, it would be Cornelys who would assist Lanner in gradually breaking out of subjective stereotypes without inciting a riot by those opposed to the new musical tradition. She did this by allowing the ‘sinful’ acts of playing cards, and opting to either listen and watch the couples dance the waltz or join in if they so chose – in total contrast to when it was mandatory for all couples in a royal setting to dance in a display of reverence and servitude.

The dance hall idea proved so successful, by the early 1800’s five of them had already popped up in Vienna. Younger generations formerly unable to mingle with upper classes, flooded the ballrooms to get their sexy groove on. It is said that by 1832, over half of the population of Vienna had joined a dance hall and remained members for decades to come. It would mark an ingenious and highly profitable move for Lanner.

Emperor Franz Josef I, Emperor of Austria and King of
Hungary, is seen here performing the waltz at
the Hoffburg Palace in in 1906 Vienna.

Johann Strauß the Elder, and the younger would create music for the waltz themselves, the most famous of which is the younger’s “The Blue Danube” (1866, seen in the video below), which remains a favorite piece of work to this very day.

Herr Strauß II's The Blue Danube. One with a keen eye will notice the ever escalating erotic nature of the improved la volta - der walzer - as centuries passed and the religious public came to accept the new trend sweeping across the globe.

The freeing dance proved so popular, it became a craze in the Far West: American soldiers were known to have embraced it during the hardships of the Civil War, and even added their own spin on the dance itself, two of the most famous being the Boston Waltz and the Boston dip.

It also enchanted the Far East: Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky famously included the waltz in his most popular ballets: Swan Lake, Sleeping Beauty, and the Nutcracker.

Today, we recognize Johann Strauß the younger as the "King of the Waltz," largely due to his ability to travel over Lanner, and, undeniably, due to the catchiness of his music – but, according the author of this blog, neither Der Walzer, nor public dance halls, nor Strauß himself would have been - and remain in - such high reverence were it not for Lanner’s early innovations and for his daring tenacity to turn a simple peasants-only dance from the streets of Italy into a sensation that continues to dominate ballrooms across the globe to this very day.

Joseph Lanner, I salute you.

-Rose.

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PATRON PROFILE: QUEEN VICTORIA - ROYAL PATRON, FAN & MUSICIAN

Queen Victoria in her Coronation Robes

Today citizens of Canada proudly celebrate the official birthday (note: not the actual birthday) of the nation's 19th century Constitutional Monarch, Queen Victoria, who reigned over the Great White North for the staggering length of nearly 64 years, making the former Queen the countries' third longest reigning monarch, just behind current Sovereign Queen Elizabeth II – who recently surpassed Victoria on the occasion of her 90th birthday last month, and whose reign now clocks in at over 64 years and counting; and that of 17th-to-early 18th century French King Louis XIV who reigned for over 72 years.

Today, unravelingmusicalmyths takes a look back at the generous patronage of Victoria to the world of Western Classical Music.

It is perhaps thanks in part to Hollywood’s occasional foray into the lives and times of the great (and not so great) Monarchs Britain that even laymen of history will be familiar with the whirlwind romance of the Princess and later Queen Victoria and her consort (and first cousin) Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, to whom she wed in 1840 at the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace in London. Victoria and Albert’s courtship and marriage was most unusual for a royal marriage – much like the Scottish Queen, Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (also a former Canadian Sovereign as Queen Consort to the sickly 16th century French King Francis II), it was the Queen herself who proposed marriage to her future husband, filled to the brim with girlish brooding – although in Victoria’s case, the feelings of passion were more than mutual, and had a far happier ending, in spite of both Queens’ reluctance to share with their spouse The Crown Matrimonial.

What is perhaps less known is the Royal couple’s impassioned and generous patronage of music – a shared affinity that would be tantamount into bringing the young relatives together before betrothal.
In fact, the Queen Victoria would famously declare of her soon-to-be husband his prowess in the arena, when she penned the words “he sang to me some of his own compositions, which are beautiful, and he has a very fine voice. I also sang for him…” in the day following her proposal to her royal fiancée.

Victoria & Albert's gorgeous gilded piano, now
part of the Royal Collection Trust. Click here
to learn more about this exquisite instrument.

So cherished was the performance of music, and the creation of music that the princely duo would make it a frequent occurrence to perform for each other the works of famous contemporary composers – and, most impressively – pieces of music the Consort Albert himself had composed, which he would serenade Victoria with as she sat at the court’s gilded golden piano (in addition to having well established singers and pianists perform selections from Albert’s repertoire. The consort-king would also famously take a seat at the piano himself).

So well admired were the works of Albert it is said that were it not for the role in which the Royal consort was stationed at birth, and the expectations expected of a figure representing such a role, the Prince would have pursued a career in composition. Few of Albert’s compositions survive, most of which had been composed prior to the couple’s Royal marriage, but those of which are presently made available convey a level of talent comparable to that of Schubert or Schumann – this, in spite of Albert humbly considering himself an “amateur musician.”

Among the frequent guest performers at the couple’s residence at Buckingham Palace was the famous 19th century German composer Felix Mendelssohn, who, as historical evidence charmingly dictates, made the Royal couple weak in the knees.

So stalwart an admirer was Albert of Mendelssohn and his oeuvre, he arranged for the Queen to meet the famous romantic era composer by orchestrating a private concert for the pair at Buckingham Palace following a most pleasing visit with the composer the prior evening, in which Mendelssohn had traveled to London to hand deliver to Albert a correspondence from the consorts’ cousin, Frederick William IV, King of Prussia. Mendelssohn happily obliged, and, as the saying goes – the rest was history. It was later recorded, following the composer’s first visit to the royal palace, that the giddy couple was more than excited (and quite nervous) at meeting their musical hero, with one Mendelssohn biographer describing the overindulgent pair as “quite fluttery” for “all their exalted station.” Victoria would as much as confirm this when she took to her diary to recall the couples first meeting with the composer: "After dinner came Mendelssohn, whose acquaintance I was so anxious to make…”

Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy

Felix would become a staple member of the musical royal household and of the private repertoire performed by the couple at Buckingham Palace, having performed for the Queen his famous Lieder ohne Worte (Songs without Words), and performing impressive musical feats such as improvising on the themes of the Austrian national anthem and the British patriotic, “Rule Britannia,” to which the Sovereign was much impressed, recording in her trusty diary: “He began immediately and really I have never heard anything so beautiful, the way in which he blended them both together and changed over from one to the other, was quite wonderful as well as the exquisite harmony and feeling he puts into the variations, and the powerful rich chords, and modulations, which reminded me of all his beautiful compositions.”

Strauss I

This homage-of sorts to the Queen and to Britain had been preceded 4 years earlier in 1838 by another famous composer of whom Victoria patronized: grandfather of the waltz, Johann Strauß the Elder (-Strauss I), who, following a disastrous debut at London, would climb his way to success through mingling in high circles (of the British nobility), and through the patronage of the then-Princess Victoria in whom Strauß was commissioned to provide for the state ball honoring Victoria’s accession to the throne a sequence of waltzes, which Strauß complied, penning his famous Huldigung der Konigin Victoria von Grossbritannien (An Homage to Queen Victoria of Great Britain):

Edward Elgar

Yet another member of the musical arts in whom Victoria and Albert supported was a formative Edward Elgar – whose astronomical rise to success would later see the English composer gainfully employed as Master of the King’s Musik under King George V (grandson to Victoria and Albert).

In addition to assisting in the makings of musical icons and rubbing shoulders with Classical music’s elite, Victoria herself would famously patronize many an opera and theater, attending some fifty performances annually!

Further reading:

A BRIEF HISTORY OF CANADA & THE MONARCHY:

Canada as we know it today is known as a Sovereign State. It is also one of the 16 Commonwealth countries that comprise the Commonwealth of Nations. This makes the present reigning Queen, Elizabeth II the nation's current Head of State.

Our great nation’s (I am a proud Canuck) ties to the Royal family extends back centuries, and includes rulers of both Britain and France, covering Canada’s pre-confederate standing as Colonies of both Britain and France, and, later as a British Dominion upon the nation’s Confederation in 1867. Through many years of constitutional action, the Dominion would not achieve full autonomy until 1931, under the so-called Statute of Westminster Act.

This meant that Canada would be re-born as an Independent Nation whilst sharing as Head of State the Sovereign of the United Kingdom alongside other members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

To many Canadians, the passing of this Statute would seemingly render the ‘powers’ of the Monarch inconsequential. This is not altogether true, in that our current Head of State remains the Queen, who, aside from performing what are essentially ceremonial duties, continues to retain the power over the assignation of the Nations governors general (the chief representative of the Crown in a given commonwealth nation), and provides assent for the passing of bills into law.

The Sovereign’s role in the Canadian Government can be quite confusing for many a citizen. Currently “the executive government and authority of and over Canada” is vested in the Queen through the Nation’s constitution. However, the actual role of the Sovereign is quite minimal: this is because, as an autonomous nation, the Queen agrees to delegate the vast majority of her powers to the current and the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government – currently Justin Trudeau, the countries Prime Minister, who governs on the “Queen's Behalf,” passing laws in her name ‘using her authority.’ Other duties of the Sovereign are performed by the aforementioned Governor General, with each province representing the Queen via a lieutenant governor.

The Queen is also the nation’s commander-in-chief of the Canadian armed forces.

The Queen Victoria, however, is unique in the aspect that the Monarch was the first Queen to have been occupying the British Throne upon Canada’s Confederation (when Canada became a nation: the Dominion of Canada, on July 1, 1867), and is known colloquially as the “Mother of the Confederation.” Although there exists no evidence of Victoria acknowledging the landmark occasion in the many letters of the Queen that survive, the Queen’s influence can still be felt today across the nation in it’s many preserved architectural wonders of the so-called Victorian era, and in the names of both cities and capitals themselves, which the former Sovereign both named and approved (it was Victoria’s selection of Ottawa as the capital of the United Province of Canada that would allow the Ontario city to remain the nation’s Capital) and in the many institutions named after her.

Join in the singing of Our great Nations' Royal Anthem "God Save the Queen" with Prince William
and Duchess Kate (filmed during an earlier performance for the separate Canada Day holiday):


Discover more:

• A brief retrospective of the National anthem “God save the King/Queen” - Composition history and the hunt for the originator of the tune at Cmuse
• A timeline of Canadian Monarchs at Wikipedia

Happy Victoria Day!

-Rose.

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VICTORIA'S CANADIAN PURSUIT: THE STORY OF EMMA ALBANI AND THE QUEEN OF ENGLAND feat. Did You Know?

Royal Standard of Canada (flag)

As Canadians look to the long weekend to celebrate the ‘birth’ of the nation’s former Head of State, celebrated annually in the country on the last Monday preceding the 25th (the ‘actual’ date of birth of the 19th century British monarch Queen Victoria), I - a Canadian-born citizen - am reminded of our much beloved former ruler’s penchant for beautiful music, and her role as patroness to the celebrated French-Canadian operatic soprano, Emma Albani.

Of course, Victoria’s association with the musical arts goes far beyond the mere stewardship of this national idol. The Queen famously patronized an up-and-coming Edward Elgar, who would go onto serve as Master of the King’s Musik under Victoria’s grandson, King George V, and helped a struggling Johann Strauss (the elder) resurface from the depths of a dismal abyss that threatened to erase the composer from the pages of London's historical almanac before his career in the English capital could even get started. 

The musically literate monarch famously wed German Prince Albert of Saxe-Gotha – a royal consort who openly admitted he’d rather have spent a life solely in the pursuit of music than as a slave to the monarchy. Together, they would host private soirées with the composer Felix Mendelssohn, of whom Victoria in particular found herself enamored (a feeling that was more than mutual). Together, the threesome would engage in song - perhaps now singing a lied penned by Albert, and then, on another occasion, improvising on the piano - each taking turns performing on the instrument (a favorite piece being an arrangement of Felix Mendelssohn’s Lieder ohne Worte, or, Songs Without Words, Op. 85, No. 6), ^[1] which both husband and wife could play together whilst the composer of the work looked on in amusement.

Victoria’s contributions to realm and stage weren’t solely relegated to Great Britain. She also extended much generosity and gratitude to Canada and the Commonwealth:

Canada both revered and honored their Queen – many times over: her name would become permanently fixed on provincial city titles and on both major and minor roadways and streets; and her wishes to permanently designate and name the nation’s Capital as "Ottawa" was granted without discourse. Her very namesake would become affectionised: following the country’s Confederation in July of 1867,  during which the monarch still occupied the throne, our “Queen Victoria” became known colloquially as the “Mother of Confederation.”

Emma Albani

There is one Canadian in particular who owed much of her success and livelihood to the Queen. She was Marie-Louise-Emma-Cécile Lajeunesse of Chambly (in present day Quebec) – later Dame Emma Albani following a name change (to sound more English) and an entrance into knighthood under King George V (grandson to Victoria and Albert) in 1925.

An undisputed favorite of the Queen, Albani would make herself available for her royal patron's beck and call – and, it seems, Victoria ‘called’ often: after a brief, yet successful run in Messina (Sicily), Emma would turn her sights to London. 

Following her debut as Amina in Vincenzo Bellini’s La Sonnambula in 1872 and a brief stint in St. Petersburg, the blossoming chanteuse came to the attention of Queen Victoria, who had undoubtedly heard of the singer’s recent success in Russia (it is said the Tsar Alexander II was present in the audience during one of her performances) and wished to hear for herself this crown jewel of French Canada. The Queen would invite Albani to her royal lodgings at Windsor castle to perform before her in a private setting. To visit the monarch meant that Emma would have to forgo the upcoming season at Covent Garden where she was currently riding the wave of newfound success in the English capital. She decided the trade-off was worth it: throwing caution to the wind, she traveled west to Windsor to serenade the Queen. On the musical menu were arias, both sacred and secular (and folk) song, and local popular music: "Caro nome" from Verdi’s Rigoletto, the folk ballad "Robin Adair," Bach/Gounod’s arrangement of "Ave Maria," and the popular song "Home! Sweet Home!"

Victoria was sufficiently pleased by the starlet – enough to invite her back to Windsor Castle to perform a repertoire especially chosen by the monarch herself: works by Johannes Brahms, Edvard Grieg, George Frederic Handel and Felix Mendelssohn – to be peppered with traditional French and Scottish compositions – in essence, whatever best suited her royal fancy.

Final portrait of Queen Victoria

Albani's appearances at the Windsor court would help solidify her status as Canada’s first international vocal performer, and secure her place at the very top of the hierarchical pyramid which represented the elite soprani of 19th and 20th century Western Classical music.

Victoria’s favoritism of the Canadian vocalist would prove most unyielding: together the two would greet their golden years, with a fifty-something Albani privately serenading an octogenarian Victoria – again at Windsor - always at Windsor – in 1898 with Wagner (as Elsa from Lohengrin). This performance in particular, would in fact reveal the true depths of the ladies’ mutual adulation: it would be one of the last – if not the last – vocal performances received by the Queen whilst she was still living, and the appearance at the side of her most loyal employer would cement Albani’s place card at the monarch’s royal funeral 3 years later in 1901, when the celebrated singer performed solo – an endearing tribute to the patron and friend of both Canada and chanteuse.

Listen below to an early wax cylinder recording (c. 1903) of Emma Albani (56) performing Handel’s famous aria Ombra Mai Fu from the composers’ 1738 opera Xerxes. It is a distinct possibility the whimsical aria was one of the works by Handel performed by the singer before the Queen during her first arrival at Windsor Castle in 1874:



Did You Know?

Queen Victoria laying the foundation stone at Royal Albert Hall in London

On this 20th day of May in the year of our Confederation, Canada’s Queen Victoria was busy on her own home turf at Kensington in London, laying down the foundation stone on a site that would grow to become that most prestigious of concert halls, the Royal Albert Hall.

Victoria, who had ceremoniously arrived to much fanfare (before a crowd of some 7,000 monarchists who had gathered under a massive marquee especially erected for her arrival), is said to have employed a golden trowel to lay the stone. As a thoughtful gesture to future generations, Her Royal Highness slipped underneath the stone a ‘time capsule’ made of glass, in which she had inserted a private inscription, and, for good measure, a quantity of both gold and silver coins.

The ceremony itself was a much fêted event for both monarch and civilian: just prior to laying the stone, Queen Victoria had been greeted not only by a very vocal and adoring crowd, but also a 21-gun salute at Hyde Park (which, along with the trumpet fanfare - performed by HM guards - that immediately followed, echoed through the crowd). A performance of her husband’s (Prince Albert) composition “Invocation to Harmony,” led by the esteemed conductor and Italian émigré Michael Costa and a Benediction delivered by the Archbishop of Canterbury were also performed for the monarch at the ceremony.

Addressing the crowd, the much admired Queen of Great Britain and the Commonwealth proclaimed the site “Royal Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences:”

“It is my wish that this Hall should bear his name to whom it will have owed its existence and be called The Royal Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences”

-Queen Victoria, South Kensington, London, May 20, 1867

Learn more about the laying of the stone and Victoria (and find out where in the venue you can take a peek at the stone itself) at royalalberthall.com.

Footnotes:

^[1]The solo version of Lieder Ohne Worte, Op. 85, no. VI comes from the collection's 7th book. The manuscript for the "duet" version, arranged for Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, titled "Lied ohne Worte für das Piano vierhändig" (Song Without Words as a Piano Duet), is currently in the collection of the Royal Trust under Queen Elizabeth II. View it here.

Further reading:

To learn more about Queen Victoria, her relationships with 19th century composers, Canada, and the Victoria Day holiday, visit "PATRON PROFILE: QUEEN VICTORIA - ROYAL PATRON, FAN & MUSICIAN" here on Unraveling Musical Myths.

-Rose.

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INSPIRATIONS: MARY STUART, QUEEN OF SCOTS - DECEMBER 8, 1542 - FEBRUARY 8, 1587 feat. Did You Know?

Marie (Mary) Stuart, Queen of Scots

As Scotland recognizes the birth of it’s 16th century monarch, Queen Mary Stuart - born this December day in 1542 at the Heathered Isles’ Linlithgow Palace, Unraveling Musical Myths takes a look back at the ill-fated rulers only true stronghold in the annals of British history: her impressive post-mortal foray into the world of symphonic muses.

Queen Mary’s tragic life and all-too-brief “reign” (if one could even call it that in the era of ruling noble factions in Scotland) has been covered extensively on this blog. You may find background on this notorious femme fatale by perusing the archives.

In brief: the young, hapless Queen, who attempted rule by matters of heart over matters of state was internationally reviled over the course of her blink-of-an-eye reign, save for the French King, Henri II and his sickly son, the dauphin François who Mary was all but forced into wedding after England’s tyrannical Henry VIII set siege on Scotland (a violent period of British history known as "The Rough Wooing") in an effort to kidnap the young royal and force a betrothal to his only legitimate son, the future king of England Edward VI - which forced Marie de Guise (mother to the queen) to make a marriage pact for her daughter with François – and in effect with France – in exchange for exile and for a French military presence in Scotland to help the nation defend themselves against the troublesome English. Detested by the French Queen Regent and conspirateur Catherine de Medici, Mary would be swiftly ousted from Court following the unexpected premature death of King François by inner ear infection in 1560.

No longer Queen Consort of France, Mary sought to regain control over her native Scotland and chose to retreat there. It would be a disaster right from the beginning. The Queen had just but set foot on terra firma after a stormy crossing at sea when the young Catholic ruler was met - rather rudely -  by the Protestant leader John Knox, who loudly chastised the Queen and cursed her very arrival on Scotland. This was not the Catholic Scotland of her youth – this was a country in the midst of a Religious Reformation.

^[1]Wedded bliss? A smug portrait of Lord Darnley, flanked by Mary.
Lord Darnley was born Henry Stuart - making the former Consort King
first cousin to Mary.

One disastrous marriage later to the consort king Lord Darnley^[1] – a highly vainglorious, narcissistic lout sent to the Island by Mary’s cousin, Queen Elizabeth I of England - and the persistent ruler would find herself embroiled in a series of diabolical plots – both as victim and as alleged manipulatrice – that would prove to be her undoing.

First, her close confidant and alleged lover, the luteist David Rizzo is executed in front of the Queen by her jealous husband after Mary shocks the nation by appointing him – a commoner - Secretary For Relations With France. It seemed Lord Darnley had political aspirations of the highest degree and would stoop to any level in order to overthrow his wife, disinherit her child (the future "Union King," James VI and I), and secure for himself the Scottish throne (including accusing Mary of a treasonous affair and alleging the child she presently carried in utero to be the illegitimate spawn of a humble musician – hardly fit to be a future King).

Lord Darnley would pay dearly for his transgressions when Mary – and her very real lover – the Scottish Lord James Hepburn (the Earl of Bothwell), successfully launched an almost aborted coup d’état by first attempting to blow the king up as he slept, and, when that failed, by chasing him down and throttling him to death. As enraged nobles - all of whom carried their own political aspirations - sought to imprison and execute the Queen and Lord Bothwell for the heinous murder of Lord Darnley, Mary once more sought exile – this time sailing South, to England, where she rightfully possessed an heirship to the English Royal Throne via the female line of Tudors (Margaret, sister to Henry VIII was Mary’s grandmother through her marriage to the Scottish King James V – Mary’s grandfather). 

Mary's only surviving son, James Stuart may have come
out the winner in an ages old battle for the British
Throne, yet his coronation would prove him to
be undoubtedly the son of the hapless Queen Mary
when it was announced that the newly-minted King
would receive his Coronation in the midst of a plague
that was busy decimating Europe. The "Union King"
as a result would receive none of the royal 
festivities traditionally granted to Kings to mark the
historical occasion. It seemed the so called
"Stuart curse" (coined during his 
mothers reign) preceded him to the throne.

England itself was embroiled in a religious revolution, and those remaining Catholics who felt themselves thwarted by the Queen and punished for their worship were engaged in countless plots to overthrow the Protestant Elizabeth – a "usurper" of the English throne once declared by King Henry VIII himself (Elizabeth’s father and England’s former king) to have been a bastard child - and place who they felt was the “rightful” Queen on the English throne: Mary Stuart. Mary herself famously became involved in several of these plots – how deeply involved remains hotly contested depending on which side of the United Kingdom one hails. In any event, the former Queen would be subjected to a show trial, promptly found guilty, and, after much hesitation, beheaded by an executioner in Elizabeth’s employ.

In a cruel twist of irony (or as a matter of just desserts – which ever be your pleasure) Mary’s son, James, who had been raised English – and Protestant – would effortlessly accomplish what Henry VIII had sought to accomplish during his so-called "Rough Wooing" some sixty years earlier, and what Lord Henry Darnley sought to steal from Mary, and what Mary herself ultimately sacrificed her life for whilst trying to become: the heir presumptive of a United England. After Elizabeth died bearing no offspring in March of 1603, a middle-aged James automatically secured for himself the throne of both England and Scotland, simultaneously establishing the Stuart dynasty - and bringing together the two millenia-old enemy nations under one Monarch, efectively setting the stage for what would eventually bceome The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, realized in 1801.**

Mary's only surviving child (she tragically miscarried twins whilst in prison) would reign gloriously over the British Empire as James I of England and James VI of Scotland.

Mary’s fascinating life and tragic death have spawned countless biographies, plays, biopics – even a television series. Her many failed exploits are the stuff of legend. The classical music sphere knows her best as a scorned coquette in maestro Donizetti’s Maria Stuarda (click here to listen to “Mary’s” famous aria “Quando de Luce Rosea”)

...but  Did You Know?

Queen Mary Stuart was also honored in the form of Lieder?

Both megalithic composers Richard Wagner and Robert Schumann (who used the Queen’s own writings as his libretti) were just a few of the many famous and revered musicians to have set the fateful Queen’s life to music.

Listen below to Herr Wagner’s “Les Adieux de Marie Staurt: Adieu, charmant pays de France" (The Farewell of Mary Stuart: Goodbye, my beloved country of France”) [left] followed by Schumann’s five-song collection “Gedichte der Königin Maria Stuart” (Poems of Queen Mary Stuart, or Mary Stuart Songs (colloquially)), for voice & piano (Op. 135) [right]:

 
 
Learn more about these lieder (external links):

“Les Adieux de Marie Staurt: Adieu, charmant pays de France" 

• Background at All Music
• Lyrics and Translation - at Lieder.net

“Gedichte der Königin Maria Stuart”

• Background at All Music
• Lyrics and Translation at Lieder.net

Footnotes:

**Whilst this Union, known as The Union of the Crowns, would unify the England and Scotland under one Monarch through James's ascension to the throne, both countries remained separate nations with separate parliaments. This crucial inheritance, however, must not be downplayed, as it set the stage for a Single Sovereign State under Queen Anne in 1707, herself ironically the last Monarch of the House of Stuart. 

 

Thus, James' ascension was a pivotal step in the future creation of the United Kingdom, as the future Queen Anne's Acts of Union in 1707 effectively abolished the parliament of England and Scotland, uniting the nations to create a new, single parliament, henceforth known as Great Britain, which would be established in Westminster. 

 

Throughout Anne's reign, she was also Monarch of the Kingdom of Ireland, however it continued to maintain its own parliament, whilst remaining subordinate to the parliament of Great Britain in London. As all of the Queens 11 heirs pre-deceased her, and with the clear directive established in the a document dubbed the Acts of Settlement created in 1701, which stipulated a ban on all remaining Catholic Stuarts for eligibility to the throne during the still contentious Reformation era, the third, final stage of the creation the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established in 1801 under George III from the House of Hanover, which unified the Kingdom of Ireland into Great Britain, abolishing the former's parliament, thus joining England and Scotland under one Monarch.

 

The ties to the House of Stuart remained, not only through predecessors who set the stage for this monumental event, but also through bloodline, as George III was a direct descendant of the House of Stuart through his ancestor George I, the first son of Sofia of Hanover (George was therefore grandfather to James VI/I). Simply put, due to Queen Anne's lack of heirs, not to mention the caveat in the 1701 Act of Succession, which would have bypassed all remaining Catholic Suarts for eligibility to the throne during the contentious Reformation era, the house of Hanover never would have acceded to the throne were it not for the Stuart family lineage, and the implantation of James VI/I, son of Mary Queen of Scots, to the throne of England.

-Rose.

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